The Mughal Empire (Establishment, Rulers, Administration)

Who Were The Mughals

The Mughals were a powerful dynasty that ruled over a large part of the Indian subcontinent from the 16th to the 18th centuries. They established an empire that became known for its vast territory, centralised administration, military strength, and patronage of art and culture.

Mughal Origins:

• The Mughals were descendants of two great lineages of rulers.
• From their father's side, they were descendants of Timur (Tamerlane), the ruler of Iran, Iraq, and modern-day Turkey, who died in 1404.
• From their mother's side, they were descendants of Gengiz Khan (Chingiz Khan), the Mongol ruler who ruled over parts of China and Central Asia, who died in 1227.

The Mughals, however, preferred to be called Timurids, as they did not like to be associated with Gengiz Khan's brutal massacres. They were proud of their Timurid ancestry.

Establishment of the Empire in India:

• The founder of the Mughal Empire in India was Babur (ruled 1526-1530 CE).
• Babur was the great-grandson of Timur. He inherited the kingdom of Farghana (in Central Asia) but was driven out.
• He then turned his attention towards India.
• In 1526, Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi, the last Sultan of Delhi, at the First Battle of Panipat. This battle marked the beginning of Mughal rule in India. Babur used superior tactics and artillery in this battle.
• Babur consolidated his position and laid the foundation for the Mughal Empire.

*(Image shows a painting or illustration of Babur, or a depiction of a battle scene from the First Battle of Panipat)*

Major Mughal Emperors:

• Babur (1526-1530) - Founder.
• Humayun (1530-1540, 1555-1556) - Faced challenges, lost and regained the throne.
• Akbar (1556-1605) - Regarded as the greatest Mughal emperor. Expanded the empire, implemented administrative reforms, and promoted religious tolerance.
• Jahangir (1605-1627) - Known for patronage of art and justice.
• Shah Jahan (1627-1658) - Period of architectural achievements (Taj Mahal).
• Aurangzeb (1658-1707) - Further expanded the empire but faced increasing challenges and rebellions.

These six emperors are often considered the 'Great Mughals'. After Aurangzeb, the empire began to decline.

Mughal Military Campaigns

Military strength was crucial for the establishment, expansion, and maintenance of the Mughal Empire. Mughal emperors were skilled military leaders and conducted numerous campaigns to conquer territories and suppress rebellions.

Military Strength:

• The Mughals had a well-organised and disciplined army, consisting of cavalry, infantry, elephants, and artillery.
• They effectively used gunpowder and artillery, which gave them an advantage in battles, particularly in the early stages against Indian rulers who had less advanced military technology.

Military Campaigns:

• Babur: Defeated Ibrahim Lodi (Delhi Sultanate) at Panipat (1526), Rana Sanga (Rajput confederacy) at Khanwa (1527), and other rulers to establish his authority in North India.
• Humayun: Faced challenges from Sher Shah Sur, who defeated him and forced him into exile. Later regained his empire.
• Akbar: Consolidated and vastly expanded the empire through a series of conquests. Conquered territories in North India, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Bengal, parts of the Deccan. Faced resistance from Rajput rulers like Maharana Pratap.
• Jahangir and Shah Jahan: Continued the policy of expansion, particularly in the Deccan and towards the northwest (trying to regain Qandahar from the Safavids).
• Aurangzeb: Further expanded the empire to its greatest territorial extent by conquering kingdoms in the Deccan (Bijapur, Golconda) and integrating other areas. However, his long military campaigns in the Deccan strained the empire's resources.

*(Image shows a historical painting or illustration depicting a Mughal army during a battle or campaign)*

Challenges and Resistance:

• The Mughals faced resistance from various powers, including Rajput kingdoms, Marathas, Sikhs, and other regional rulers.
• Suppressing rebellions and maintaining control over conquered territories were continuous challenges.

Mughal military campaigns and their ability to effectively use military technology were key factors in the rise and expansion of the empire, but also contributed to its eventual financial strain and decline.

Mughal Traditions Of Succession

Unlike the principle of primogeniture (where the eldest son inherits the throne) often followed in Europe, the Mughals did not adhere to a strict rule of succession. They followed a tradition based on coparcenary inheritance or a division of the inheritance among all sons.

Coparcenary Inheritance:

• Under this tradition, all sons had a claim to the inheritance, including the throne.
• This often led to conflicts and wars of succession among brothers after the death of an emperor.
• Example: The conflict between Aurangzeb and his brothers Dara Shikoh, Shah Shuja, and Murad Bakhsh after Shah Jahan fell ill. Aurangzeb defeated and killed his brothers to secure the throne.

Impact on the Empire:

• Wars of succession were frequent and often bloody.
• They could weaken the empire by draining resources and causing political instability during the transition period.
• However, it also meant that the most capable son (in terms of military and political skill) often emerged victorious, potentially leading to a stronger ruler.

This Mughal tradition of succession based on division rather than primogeniture was a distinctive feature and a recurring factor in the political history of the empire.

Mughal Relations With Other Rulers

The Mughal emperors engaged in complex relationships with other rulers in the Indian subcontinent, including the Rajput rulers and the Deccan Sultanates. These relations involved military conflict, alliances, diplomacy, and cultural exchange.

Relations with Rajputs:

• The Rajput rulers in Rajasthan were powerful chieftains who often resisted Mughal expansion.
• Akbar, in particular, pursued a policy of reconciliation and inclusion towards the Rajputs.
• He built alliances with many Rajput kingdoms through marriage alliances (e.g., marrying a Rajput princess from Amber).
• Many Rajput rulers served in the Mughal army and administration, holding high positions (mansabs).
• This policy of integration helped the Mughals expand their empire and secure loyal military support.
• However, some Rajput rulers, like the Ranas of Mewar (e.g., Maharana Pratap), continued to resist Mughal authority.
• Akbar's successors generally continued this policy, but tensions sometimes arose (e.g., under Aurangzeb).

Relations with Deccan Sultanates:

• The Mughal emperors aimed to expand their control into the Deccan region, which was ruled by several independent Sultanates (Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar).
• Relations involved frequent military campaigns and attempts to conquer these Sultanates, particularly by Akbar, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb.
• Aurangzeb eventually annexed Bijapur and Golconda, extending the Mughal Empire to its maximum extent, but these campaigns were lengthy and costly.
• The rise of the Marathas under Shivaji in the Deccan also posed a significant challenge to Mughal authority.

Relations with Other Powers:

• The Mughals also had relations with other regional kingdoms and chieftaincies in India (e.g., Bengal, Odisha, Punjab).
• They also engaged in diplomacy and sometimes conflict with neighboring powers like the Safavids of Persia (over territories like Qandahar) and the Uzbeks in Central Asia.

Mughal relations with other rulers were complex, involving a mix of conquest, diplomacy, alliances, and administrative integration. These interactions shaped the political landscape of the subcontinent during the Mughal era.

A Closer Look: Akbar’s Policies

Emperor Akbar (ruled 1556-1605 CE) is renowned for his broad vision and policies, which significantly contributed to the consolidation and stability of the Mughal Empire. His reign is considered a turning point in Mughal history.

Key Aspects of Akbar's Policies:

• Expansion of the Empire: Through numerous military campaigns, he brought vast territories under Mughal control.
• Administrative Reforms: Established a centralised administrative system (Mansabdari system, land revenue system).
• Inclusiveness and Reconciliation: Policies towards non-Muslims and regional rulers aimed at winning loyalty and integrating diverse populations into the empire.
• Religious Tolerance: Promoted a policy of religious harmony (Sulh-i kul).

Administration Structure

• Mansabdari System: A system of ranking officials in the Mughal military and civil administration. Each Mansabdar was assigned a rank (mansab) consisting of a 'zat' (indicating the official's position in the hierarchy and salary) and a 'sawar' (indicating the number of cavalry troopers the official was required to maintain). Mansabdars were paid salaries, often in the form of land assignments called jagirs. The system was hierarchical and integrated military and civil functions.
• Land Revenue System (Zabt System): Developed a sophisticated system for assessing and collecting land revenue. Revenue was based on a careful survey and measurement of cultivated land. Revenue rates were fixed. This system aimed at ensuring a fair assessment and a stable source of income for the state.
• Central Administration: Headed by the emperor, with various ministers and departments (e.g., Diwan - revenue minister, Mir Bakhshi - military paymaster).
• Provincial Administration: Empire divided into provinces (subahs), each headed by a governor (subadar), with their own set of officials for administration and revenue collection.

*(Image shows a diagram illustrating the hierarchy of Mansabdars or a simplified representation of the land revenue assessment/collection process under the Zabt system)*

Religious Discussions And Sulh-I Kul

• Akbar was deeply interested in understanding different religions and philosophies.
• He held discussions with religious scholars from various faiths (Hinduism, Islam, Jainism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism) in the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) at Fatehpur Sikri.
• These discussions led him to develop the concept of Sulh-i Kul (meaning 'universal peace' or 'absolute peace').
• Sulh-i Kul: A policy of religious tolerance and harmony. It was based on the idea that all religions contain elements of truth and that there should be peace and harmony among people of different faiths.
• Akbar abolished discriminatory taxes like the Jaziya (tax on non-Muslims) and pilgrimage tax.
• He integrated people from different religious and ethnic backgrounds (Hindus, Jains, Parsis, Christians, Rajputs, Afghans, etc.) into his administration and nobility, based on their merit and loyalty.

Akbar's inclusive and tolerant policies were crucial for securing the loyalty of diverse populations and consolidating the empire. His administrative reforms provided a stable framework for governance and resource mobilisation.

The Akbar Nama And The Badshah Nama

Official court chronicles are important historical sources, providing detailed accounts of the reigns of Mughal emperors. The Akbar Nama and the Badshah Nama are two such major chronicles from the Mughal period.

The Akbar Nama:

• Authored by Abu'l Fazl Allami, the court historian of Emperor Akbar.
• It is the official history of Akbar's reign, written in Persian.
• The Akbar Nama is divided into three books:
  • The first book deals with the history of humanity from the time of Adam to one celestial year of Akbar's life.
  • The second book covers the events of Akbar's reign up to his 46th regnal year (1601).
  • The third book is the Ain-i Akbari, which is a detailed administrative manual of Akbar's empire (as discussed in the previous chapter).
• Abu'l Fazl aimed to provide a factual and detailed history, but as a court historian and close friend of the emperor, his work tends to glorify Akbar and present his reign in a favorable light.
• The Akbarnama is a valuable source for political events, military campaigns, administrative policies, and court life during Akbar's reign. It is often accompanied by beautiful miniature paintings illustrating scenes from the chronicle.

*(Image shows a photograph of a page from an illustrated Akbarnama manuscript)*

The Badshah Nama:

• The Badshah Nama (meaning 'Chronicle of the King of Kings') is the official history of the reign of Emperor Shah Jahan (ruled 1627-1658 CE).
• It was commissioned by Shah Jahan himself and was written by several chroniclers, including Abdul Hamid Lahori.
• The Badshah Nama covers the events of Shah Jahan's reign in detail, focusing on his military campaigns, administrative actions, court ceremonies, and grand construction projects (like the Taj Mahal and the Red Fort in Delhi).
• It is also a richly illustrated manuscript, with miniature paintings depicting scenes from Shah Jahan's life and reign.

*(Image shows a photograph of a page from an illustrated Badshah Nama manuscript)*

Both the Akbar Nama and the Badshah Nama are essential primary sources for historians studying the Mughal Empire, providing detailed (though often biased) accounts of the lives and reigns of these prominent emperors, their policies, and the events of their time. They also reflect the cultural values and artistic patronage of the Mughal court.

The Imperial Officials

The administration of the vast Mughal Empire relied on a hierarchy of imperial officials who implemented the emperor's policies, collected revenue, maintained order, and led the army. The Mansabdari system was the framework for organising these officials.

Recruitment And Rank

• Mughal officials were called Mansabdars.
• They were recruited from diverse backgrounds, including Turkic, Iranian, Indian Muslim, Rajput, and other groups. Loyalty to the emperor was a key criterion for recruitment and promotion.
• Each Mansabdar was assigned a rank (mansab) consisting of two numerical values:
  • Zat: Determined the official's personal rank, status, and salary. Higher zat meant higher status and salary.
  • Sawar: Indicated the number of cavalrymen the Mansabdar was required to maintain and present for review by the state. A higher sawar rank meant the official had to maintain a larger contingent of troops.
• Mansabdars were paid their salaries, often in the form of revenue assignments called jagirs. They collected the revenue from their jagirs to pay themselves and their troops.
• The Mansabdari system was hierarchical, with Mansabdars ranked from low to very high positions.

Information And Empire

• Effective administration and control over a vast empire required efficient communication and information gathering.
• The Mughal state developed systems for obtaining information about the administration, revenue collection, and general conditions in different parts of the empire.
• Officials at various levels sent reports to the central government.
• There was also a system of spies and news writers who collected information from the provinces and sent it to the court.
• This flow of information helped the emperor and central administration make decisions, monitor officials, and maintain control.

Beyond The Centre: Provincial Administration

• The empire was divided into large provinces called subahs.
• Each subah was headed by a subadar, who was responsible for political and military functions.
• Each subah also had a Diwan, who was responsible for the financial and revenue administration.
• Other officials included the bakhshi (military paymaster), the Sadr (in charge of religious and charitable grants), and the Qazi (judge).
• Subahs were further divided into sarkars and parganas, with their own set of officials.
• At the village level, local officials like the village headman and accountant (patwari) were present, often hereditary, assisting in revenue collection and administration.

*(Image shows a simple diagram illustrating the hierarchy of Mughal administration from the emperor down to provincial officials)*

The Mughal imperial officials, organised through the Mansabdari system and operating at central, provincial, and local levels, formed the machinery of the empire, responsible for implementing policies, collecting revenue, and maintaining control over the vast territory.